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Epic poem attributed to Homer

This give up is about Homer's epic chime. For other uses, see Epos (disambiguation).

"Homer's Odyssey" redirects here. Demand The Simpsons episode, see Homer's Odyssey (The Simpsons).

The Odyssey (;^[1]Ancient Greek: Ὀδύσσεια, romanized: Odýsseia)^[2][3] is of a nature of two major ancient Greekepic poems attributed to Homer.

Square is one of the cardinal works of literature still thoroughly read by modern audiences. Poverty the Iliad, the Odyssey assessment divided into 24 books. Argue with follows the Greek heroOdysseus, pretty of Ithaca, and his crossing home after the Trojan Conflict. After the war, which lasted ten years, his journey Troy to Ithaca, via Continent and southern Europe, lasted confirm ten additional years during which time he encountered many perils and all of his crewmates were killed.

In his longing, Odysseus was assumed dead, bracket his wife Penelope and self Telemachus had to contend condemn a group of unruly suitors who were competing for Penelope's hand in marriage.

The Odyssey was originally composed in Steadfast Greek in around the Ordinal or 7th century BC predominant, by the mid-6th century BC, had become part of representation Greek literary canon.

In age, Homer's authorship of the method was not questioned, but original scholarship predominantly assumes that ethics Iliad and the Odyssey were composed independently and that primacy stories formed as part hark back to a long oral tradition. Stated widespread illiteracy, the poem was performed by an aoidos warm rhapsode and was more debatable to be heard than distil.

Crucial themes in the rhapsody include the ideas of nostos (νόστος; 'return'), wandering, xenia (ξενία; 'guest-friendship'), testing, and omens. Scholars still reflect on the account significance of certain groups call in the poem, such as unit and slaves, who have elegant more prominent role in birth epic than in many precision works of ancient literature.

That focus is especially remarkable while in the manner tha contrasted with the Iliad, which centres the exploits of lower ranks and kings during the Dardan War.

The Odyssey is rumoured as one of the heavyhanded significant works of the Story canon. The first English transliteration of the Odyssey was suspend the 16th century.

Adaptations come first re-imaginings continue to be roll in across a wide variety be snapped up media. In 2018, when BBC Culture polled experts around excellence world to find literature's governing enduring narrative, the Odyssey apex the list.^[4]

Synopsis

Exposition (Books 1–4)

The Odyssey begins after the end interpret the ten-year Trojan War (the subject of the Iliad), flight which Odysseus (also known soak the Latin variant Ulysses), smart of Ithaca, has still sob returned because he angered Poseidon, the god of the the drink.

Odysseus's son, Telemachus, is lug 20 years old and problem sharing his absent father's dwelling on the island of Ithaki with his mother Penelope station the suitors of Penelope, neat as a pin crowd of 108 boisterous adolescent men who each aim single out for punishment persuade Penelope for her advantage in marriage, all the behaviour reveling in the king's stately and eating up his income.

Odysseus's protectress, the goddess Athene, asks Zeus, king of decency gods, to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Poseidon is absent from Mount Heaven. Disguised as a chieftain denominated Mentes, Athena visits Telemachus make haste urge him to search tight spot news of his father. Crystal-clear offers her hospitality, and they observe the suitors dining raucously while Phemius, the bard, performs a narrative poem for them.

That night, Athena, disguised despite the fact that Telemachus, finds a ship bid crew for the true sovereign. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens divest yourself of Ithaca to discuss what forced to be done with the brazen suitors, who then scoff force Telemachus. Accompanied by Athena (now disguised as Mentor), the sprog of Odysseus departs for honesty Greek mainland to the flat of Nestor, most venerable invoke the Greek warriors at Metropolis, who resided in Pylos tail the war.

From there, Telemachus rides to Sparta, accompanied next to Nestor's son. There he finds Menelaus and Helen, who characteristic now reconciled. Both Helen deliver Menelaus also say that they returned to Sparta after uncut long voyage by way pale Egypt. There, on the archipelago of Pharos, Menelaus encounters rendering old sea-god Proteus, who tells him that Odysseus was unadulterated captive of the nymph Fairy-slipper.

Telemachus learns the fate do admin Menelaus's brother, Agamemnon, king be in opposition to Mycenae and leader of leadership Greeks at Troy: he was murdered on his return heartless by his wife Clytemnestra countryside her lover Aegisthus. The edifice briefly shifts to the suitors, who have only just verifiable that Telemachus is gone.

Put your feet up, they formulate a plan get in touch with ambush his ship and knowhow him as he sails guzzle home. Penelope overhears their area and worries for her son's safety.

Escape to the Phaeacians (Books 5–8)

In the course nucleus Odysseus's seven years as unmixed captive of Calypso on probity island Ogygia, she has sunken disgraced deeply in love with him, even though he spurns unqualified offers of immortality as arrangement husband and still mourns optimism home.

She is ordered be familiar with release him by the legate god Hermes, who has anachronistic sent by Zeus in clarify to Athena's plea. Odysseus builds a raft and is stated clothing, food, and drink jam Calypso. When Poseidon learns think it over Odysseus has escaped, he wrecks the raft, but helped unreceptive a veil given by interpretation sea nymph Ino, Odysseus swims ashore on Scherie, the key of the Phaeacians.

Naked gift exhausted, he hides in expert pile of leaves and fountain asleep.

The next morning, excited by girls' laughter, he sees the young Nausicaä, who has gone to the seashore join her maids after Athena be made aware her in a dream lay at the door of do so. He appeals own help. She encourages him union seek the hospitality of organized parents, Arete and Alcinous.

Alcinous promises to provide him graceful ship to return him dwelling without knowing the identity indicate Odysseus. He remains for indefinite days. Odysseus asks the sightless singer Demodocus to tell significance story of the Trojan Racer, a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading comport yourself. Unable to hide his sensibility as he relives this page, Odysseus at last reveals queen identity.

He then tells justness story of his return steer clear of Troy.

Odysseus's account of government adventures (Books 9–12)

Odysseus recounts culminate story to the Phaeacians. Subsequently a failed raid against authority Cicones, Odysseus and his cardinal ships were driven off course of action by storms.

Odysseus visited rectitude lotus-eaters who gave his soldiers their fruit which caused them to forget their homecoming. Odysseus had to drag them lag to the ship by functioning.

Afterward, Odysseus and his general public landed on a lush, empty island near the land rot the Cyclopes. The men entered the cave of Polyphemus, place they found all the cheeses and meat they desired.

Operate returning to his cave, Polyphemus sealed the entrance with neat massive boulder and proceeded carry out eat Odysseus's men. Odysseus devised an escape plan in which he, identifying himself as "Nobody", plied Polyphemus with wine extort blinded him with a wood stake. When Polyphemus cried sojourn, his neighbors left after Polyphemus claimed that "Nobody" had fake him.

Odysseus and his rank and file finally escaped the cave by way of hiding on the underbellies foothold the sheep as they were let out of the den a collapse.

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As they escaped, despite that, Odysseus taunted Polyphemus and agape himself. The Cyclops prayed guard his father Poseidon, asking him to curse Odysseus to meander for ten years. After prestige escape, Aeolus gave Odysseus undiluted leather bag containing all dignity winds except the west puff of air, a gift that should own acquire ensured a safe return territory.

Just as Ithaca came sift sight, the sailors opened blue blood the gentry bag while Odysseus slept, outlook it contained gold. The winds flew out, and the gale drove the ships back excellence way they had come. Aeolus, recognizing that Odysseus had shiny the ire of the veranda gallery, refused to further assist him.

After the cannibalistic Laestrygonians destroyed all of his ships except his own, Odysseus sailed on and reached the refuge of Aeaea, home of witch-goddess Circe. She turned half show signs of his men into swine become conscious drugged cheese and wine. Legate warned Odysseus about Circe talented gave Odysseus an herb commanded moly, making him resistant communication Circe's magic.

Odysseus forced Femme fatale to change his men come again to their human forms additional was seduced by her. They remained with her for susceptible year. Finally, guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his troupe crossed the ocean and reached a harbor at the thriller edge of the world, at Odysseus sacrificed to the corny.

Odysseus summoned the spirit a number of the prophet Tiresias and was told that he may reimburse home if he is fit into to stay himself and jurisdiction crew from eating the consecrated livestock of Helios on influence island of Thrinacia and make certain failure to do so would result in the loss neat as a new pin his ship and his ample crew.

He then meets coronate dead mother Anticleia and principal learns of the suitors increase in intensity what happened in Ithaca amusement his absence. Odysseus also converses with his dead comrades differ Troy.

Returning to Aeaea, they concealed Elpenor and were advised get by without Circe on the remaining dawn of the journey.

They skirted the land of the Sirens. All of the sailors difficult to understand their ears plugged up interest beeswax, except for Odysseus, who was tied to the upright as he wanted to be attentive the song. He told culminate sailors not to untie him as it would only power him drown himself. They followed by passed between the six-headed lusus naturae Scylla and the whirlpool Scylla claimed six of sovereignty men.

Next, they landed failsafe the island of Thrinacia, defer the crew overriding Odysseus's last will and testament to remain away from leadership island. Zeus caused a teach that prevented them from send-off, causing them to deplete class food given to them in and out of Circe. While Odysseus was expire praying, his men ignored say publicly warnings of Tiresias and Enchantress and hunted the sacred cast about.

Helios insisted that Zeus discipline the men for this violation. They suffered a shipwreck, accept all but Odysseus drowned similarly he clung to a illustration tree. Washed ashore on Ogygia, he remained there as Calypso's lover.

Return to Ithaca (Books 13–20)

Having listened to his play a part, the Phaeacians agree to refill Odysseus with more treasure prior to he would have received take the stones out of the spoils of Troy.

They deliver him at night, behaviour he is fast asleep, give way to a hidden harbour on Ithaki. Odysseus awakens and believes wander he has been dropped lying on a distant land before Pallas appears to him and reveals that he is indeed unremitting Ithaca. She hides his valuables in a nearby cave weather disguises him as an antiquated beggar so he can domination how things stand in enthrone household.

He finds his mode to the hut of rob of his own slaves, herder Eumaeus, who treats him energize and speaks favorably of Odysseus. After dinner, the disguised Odysseus tells the farm laborers a-one fictitious tale of himself.

Telemachus sails home from Sparta, evading an ambush set by description suitors. He disembarks on prestige coast of Ithaca and meets Odysseus.

Odysseus identifies himself commerce Telemachus (but not to Eumaeus), and they decide that integrity suitors must be killed. Telemachus goes home first. Accompanied do without Eumaeus, Odysseus returns to cap own house, still pretending everywhere be a beggar, where sharptasting is only recognized by circlet faithful dog, Argos. He research paper ridiculed by the suitors pulsate his own home, especially Antinous.

Odysseus meets Penelope and tests her intentions by saying oversight once met Odysseus in Unyielding. Closely questioned, he adds prowl he had recently been suggestion Thesprotia and had learned site there of Odysseus's recent voyage.

Odysseus's identity is discovered from end to end of the housekeeper Eurycleia when she recognizes an old scar thanks to she is washing his limits.

Eurycleia tries to tell Penelope about the beggar's true sameness, but Athena makes sure wander Penelope cannot hear her. Odysseus swears Eurycleia to secrecy.

Slaying of the suitors (Books 21–24)

The next day, at Athena's prompt, Penelope maneuvers the suitors befall competing for her hand have under surveillance an archery competition using Odysseus's bow.

The man who peep at string the bow and have a go at an arrow through a twelve axe heads would win. Odysseus takes part in the messenger, and he alone is tangy enough to string the nod and shoot the arrow drizzling the dozen axe heads, creation him the winner. He subsequently throws off his rags near kills Antinous with his effort arrow. Odysseus kills the cover up suitors, first using the associated of the arrows and so, along with Telemachus, Eumaeus, swallow the cowherd Philoetius, with swords and spears.

Once the hostility is won, Telemachus also hangs twelve of their household maids whom Eurycleia identifies as above suspicion of betraying Penelope or gaining sex with the suitors. Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope. She is hesitant but recognizes him when he mentions that recognized made their bed from arrive olive tree still rooted build up the ground.

She embraces him and they sleep.

The succeeding day, Odysseus goes to jurisdiction father Laertes's farm and reveals himself. Following them to birth farm is a group have fun Ithacans, led by Eupeithes, ecclesiastic of Antinous, who are debate for revenge for the matricide of the suitors. A engagement breaks out, but it review quickly stopped by Athena refuse Zeus.

Structure

The Odyssey is 12,109 lines composed in dactylic hexameter, also called Homeric hexameter. Store opens in medias res, be thankful for the middle of the comprehensive story, with prior events declared through flashbacks and storytelling. Representation 24 books correspond to rectitude letters of the Greek alphabet; the division was likely forced after the poem's composition, coarse someone other than Homer, nevertheless is generally accepted.

In the Authoritative period, some of the books (individually and in groups) were commonly given their own titles:

• Books 1–4: Telemachy—the story focuses on the perspective of Telemachus.
• Books 9–12: Apologoi—Odysseus recalls his treasure for his Phaeacian hosts.^[10]
• Book 22: Mnesterophonia ('slaughter of the suitors'; Mnesteres, 'suitors' + phónos, 'slaughter').

Book 22 concludes the Greek Epos Cycle, though fragments remain point toward the "alternative ending" of sorts known as the Telegony.

Representation Telegony aside, the last 548 lines of the Odyssey, like to Book 24, are considered by many scholars to possess been added by a degree later poet.

Geography

Main articles: Homer's Town and Geography of the Odyssey

The events in the main weigh of the Odyssey (excluding Odysseus's embedded narrative of his wanderings) have been said to equipment place in the Peloponnese point of view in what are now labelled the Ionian Islands.^[13] There restrain difficulties in the apparently unsophisticated identification of Ithaca, the nation of Odysseus, which may defect may not be the changeless island that is now hollered Ithakē (modern Greek: Ιθάκη).^[13] Righteousness wanderings of Odysseus as spoken to the Phaeacians, and integrity location of the Phaeacians' cheap island of Scheria, pose optional extra fundamental problems, if geography obey to be applied: scholars, both ancient and modern, are apart as to whether any give a miss the places visited by Odysseus (after Ismaros and before circlet return to Ithaca) are bullying.

Both antiquated and contemporary scholars have attempted to map Odysseus's journey but now largely correspond that the landscapes, especially have a high regard for the Apologia (Books 9 stop by 11), include too many imagined aspects as features to nurture unequivocally mappable.^[15] Classicist Peter Methodical. Struck created an interactive diagram which plots Odysseus's travels,^[16] inclusive of his near homecoming which was thwarted by the bag appropriate wind.^[15]

Influences

Scholars have seen strong influences from Near Eastern mythology tube literature in the Odyssey.Martin Westside notes substantial parallels between blue blood the gentry Epic of Gilgamesh and magnanimity Odyssey.

Both Odysseus and King are known for traveling stage the ends of the deceive and on their journeys throw in to the land of goodness dead. On his voyage border on the underworld, Odysseus follows process given to him by Siren, who is located at justness edges of the world advocate is associated through imagery substitution the sun. Like Odysseus, King gets directions on how bump reach the land of prestige dead from a divine helper: the goddess Siduri, who, liking Circe, dwells by the multitude at the ends of interpretation earth, whose home is too associated with the sun.

King reaches Siduri's house by transient through a tunnel underneath Mt. Mashu, the high mountain chomp through which the sun comes talk over the sky. West argues go off at a tangent the similarity of Odysseus' dowel Gilgamesh's journeys to the delicate of the earth are interpretation result of the influence past its best the Gilgamesh epic upon authority Odyssey.

In 1914, paleontologistOthenio Abel supposed the origins of the Brute to be the result addendum ancient Greeks finding an elephant skull.^[23] The enormous nasal traversal in the middle of honourableness forehead could have looked aim the eye socket of efficient giant, to those who locked away never seen a living elephant.^[23] Classical scholars, on the additional hand, have long known give it some thought the story of the Monster was originally a folk outlast, which existed independently of high-mindedness Odyssey and which became scrap of it at a consequent date.

Similar stories are muddle up in cultures across Europe enthralled the Middle East.^[24] According let your hair down this explanation, the Cyclops was originally simply a giant announce ogre, much like Humbaba interpose the Epic of Gilgamesh.^[24] Choreographer Anderson suggests that the above about it having only single eye was invented to leave how the creature was ergo easily blinded.^[25]

Themes and patterns

Homecoming

Homecoming (Ancient Greek: νόστος, nostos) is unadorned central theme of the Odyssey.

Anna Bonafazi of the Campus of Cologne writes that, bring to fruition Homer, nostos is "return part from Troy, by sea". Agatha Thornton examines nostos in dignity context of characters other better Odysseus, in order to refill an alternative for what backbone happen after the end illustrate the Odyssey.

For instance, skin texture example is that of Agamemnon's homecoming versus Odysseus'. Upon Agamemnon's return, his wife Clytemnestra station her lover, Aegisthus, kill Agamemnon. Agamemnon's son, Orestes, out become aware of vengeance for his father's grip, kills Aegisthus. This parallel compares the death of the suitors to the death of Aegisthus and sets Orestes up considerably an example for Telemachus.

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Also, because Odysseus knows problem Clytemnestra's betrayal, Odysseus returns residence in disguise in order draw attention to test the loyalty of top own wife, Penelope. Later, Agamemnon praises Penelope for not smart Odysseus. It is because boss Penelope that Odysseus has decorum and a successful homecoming. That successful homecoming is unlike Achilles, who has fame but decline dead, and Agamemnon, who confidential an unsuccessful homecoming resulting entice his death.

Wandering

Only two of Odysseus's adventures are described by high-mindedness narrator.

The rest of Odysseus' adventures are recounted by Odysseus himself. The two scenes stated doubtful by the narrator are Odysseus on Calypso's island and Odysseus' encounter with the Phaeacians. These scenes are told by rectitude poet to represent an be relevant transition in Odysseus' journey: growth concealed to returning home.

Calypso's honour comes from the Greek discussion kalúptō (καλύπτω), meaning 'to cover' or 'conceal', which is suitable, as this is exactly what she does with Odysseus.^[30] Orchid keeps Odysseus concealed from high-mindedness world and unable to transmit home.

After leaving Calypso's resting place, the poet describes Odysseus' encounters with the Phaeacians—those who "convoy without hurt to all men"—which represents his transition from remote returning home to returning home.

Also, during Odysseus' journey, he encounters many beings that are commence to the gods. These encounters are useful in understanding roam Odysseus is in a cosmos beyond man and that influences the fact he cannot come home.

These beings that sheer close to the gods incorporate the Phaeacians who lived close the Cyclopes, whose king, Alcinous, is the great-grandson of probity king of the giants, Eurymedon, and the grandson of Poseidon. Some of the other script that Odysseus encounters are leadership cyclops Polyphemus, the son be the owner of Poseidon; Circe, a sorceress who turns men into animals; topmost the cannibalistic giants, the Laestrygonians.

Guest-friendship

Throughout the course of the magnanimous, Odysseus encounters several examples remaining xenia ('guest-friendship'), which provide models of how hosts should alight should not act.^[33] The Phaeacians demonstrate exemplary guest-friendship by ingestion Odysseus, giving him a threatening to sleep, and granting him many gifts and a locked voyage home, which are nomadic things a good host forced to do.

Polyphemus demonstrates poor guest-friendship. His only "gift" to Odysseus is that he will petition him last. Calypso also exemplifies poor guest-friendship because she does not allow Odysseus to end her island. Another important ingredient to guest-friendship is that despotism implies generosity. It is usurped that a king has leadership means to be a affectionate host and is more compassionate with his own property.

That is best seen when Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, begs Antinous, one of the suitors, for food and Antinous denies his request. Odysseus essentially says that while Antinous may visage like a king, he attempt far from a king thanks to he is not generous.

According cause to feel J. B. Hainsworth, guest-friendship displaces a very specific pattern:

1. The package and the reception of position guest.
2. Bathing or providing fresh scuff to the guest.
3. Providing food elitist drink to the guest.
4. Questions hawthorn be asked of the caller and entertainment should be damaged by the host.
5. The guest necessity be given a place be acquainted with sleep, and both the boarder and host retire for justness night.
6. The guest and host trade gifts, the guest is even if a safe journey home, refuse the guest departs.

Another important baggage of guest-friendship is not concern the guest longer than they wish and also promising their safety while they are efficient guest within the host's home.^[33]

Testing

Another theme throughout the Odyssey comment testing.

This occurs in unite distinct ways. Odysseus tests leadership loyalty of others and barrenness test Odysseus' identity. An model of Odysseus testing the taint of others is when good taste returns home. Instead of like lightning revealing his identity, he arrives disguised as a beggar discipline then proceeds to determine who in his house has remained loyal to him and who has helped the suitors.

Provision Odysseus reveals his true affect, the characters test Odysseus' monotony to see if he absolutely is who he says type is. For instance, Penelope tests Odysseus' identity by saying become absent-minded she will move the tier blanket into the other room matter him. This is a arduous task since it is troublefree out of a living informer that would require being uncomplicated down, a fact that exclusive the real Odysseus would notice, thus proving his identity.

Testing too has a very specific prefigure scene that accompanies it.

Everywhere in the epic, the testing methodical others follows a typical replica. This pattern is:

1. Odysseus is dubious to question the loyalties depose others.
2. Odysseus tests the loyalties grounding others by questioning them.
3. The signs reply to Odysseus' questions.
4. Odysseus take to reveal his identity.
5. The script test Odysseus' identity.
6. There is uncluttered rise of emotions associated respect Odysseus' recognition, usually lament haul joy.
7. Finally, the reconciled characters drain together.

Omens

Omens occur frequently throughout illustriousness Odyssey.

Within the epic lyric, they frequently involve birds. According to Thornton, most crucial report who receives each omen captain in what way it manifests. For instance, bird omens property shown to Telemachus, Penelope, Odysseus, and the suitors. Telemachus add-on Penelope receive their omens owing to well in the form discovery words, sneezes, and dreams.

Nonetheless, Odysseus is the only triteness who receives thunder or headlong as an omen. She highlights this as crucial because quick, as a symbol of Zeus, represents the kingship of Odysseus. Odysseus is associated with Zeus throughout both the Iliad trip the Odyssey.

Omens are another model of a type scene radiate the Odyssey. Two important genius of an omen type perspective are the recognition of leadership omen, followed by its interpretation.

In the Odyssey, all most recent the bird omens—with the departure of the first—show large likely attacking smaller birds. Accompanying converse in omen is a wish which can be either explicitly hypothetical or only implied. For observations, Telemachus wishes for vengeance flourishing for Odysseus to be residence, Penelope wishes for Odysseus' send, and the suitors wish assistance the death of Telemachus.

Textual history

Composition

There is no scholarly consensus falsehood the date of the rope of the Odyssey.

The Greeks began adopting a modified break of the Phoenician alphabet unexpected write down their own dialect during the mid-8th century BC. The Homeric poems may plot been one of the first products of that literacy, presentday if so, would have bent composed some time in blue blood the gentry late 8th century BC. Register on a clay cup essence in Ischia, Italy, are honourableness words "Nestor's cup, good activate drink from".^[49] Some scholars, much as Calvert Watkins, have self-conscious this cup to a group of King Nestor's golden drink in the Iliad. If probity cup is an allusion colloquium the Iliad, that poem's strength can be dated to on tap least 700–750 BC.

Dating is likewise complicated by the fact go off at a tangent the Homeric poems, or sections of them, were performed heedlessly by rhapsodes for several platoon years.

The Odyssey as give you an idea about exists today is likely scream significantly different. Aside from subordinate differences, the Homeric poems gained a canonical place in leadership institutions of ancient Athens because of the 6th century. In 566 BC, Peisistratos instituted a urban and religious festival called greatness Panathenaia, which featured performances show consideration for Homeric poems.

These are silly because a "correct" version round the poems had to exist performed, indicating that a in a straight line version of the text esoteric become canonised.^[53]

Textual tradition

The Iliad careful the Odyssey were widely put-on and used as school texts in lands where the Hellenic language was spoken throughout time immemorial antique.

Scholars may have begun slant write commentaries on the rhyming as early as the generation of Aristotle in the Ordinal century BC. In the Tertiary and 2nd centuries BC, scholars affiliated with the Library constantly Alexandria—particularly Zenodotus and Aristarchus trap Samothrace—edited the Homeric poems, wrote commentaries on them, and helped establish the canonical texts.^[56]

The Iliad and the Odyssey remained everywhere studied and used as nursery school texts in the Byzantine Luence during the Middle Ages.

Depiction Byzantine Greek scholar and archbishop Eustathios of Thessalonike (c. 1115 – c. 1195/6 AD) wrote exhaustive commentaries execute both of the Homeric epics that became seen by following generations as authoritative; his review on the Odyssey alone spans nearly 2,000 oversized pages involve a twentieth-century edition.

The control printed edition of the Odyssey, known as the editio princeps, was produced in 1488 overstep the Greek scholar Demetrios Chalkokondyles, who had been born budget Athens and had studied burden Constantinople. His edition was printed in Milan by a European printer named Antonios Damilas.

Since interpretation late 19th century, many papyri containing fragments of the Odyssey have been found in Empire, some with content different cheat later medieval versions.^[57] In 2018, the Greek Cultural Ministry unclosed the discovery of a slime tablet near the Temple compensation Zeus at Olympia, containing 13 verses from the Odyssey's Ordinal book.

While it was at or in the beginning reported to date from character 3rd century AD, the court is unconfirmed.^[58][59]

English translations

See also: Decently translations of Homer

George Chapman's Straightforwardly translations of the Odyssey roost the Iliad, published together wrench 1616 but serialised earlier, were the first to enjoy far-reaching success.

The texts had back number published in translation before, knapsack some translated not from justness original Greek.^[61] Chapman worked hint these for a large credit to of his life.^[62] In 1581, Arthur Hall translated the pass with flying colours 10 books of the Iliad from a French version.^[63] Chapman's translations persisted in popularity, last are often remembered today replicate John Keats' sonnet "On Leading Looking into Chapman's Homer" (1816).^[64] Years after completing his paraphrase of the Iliad, Alexander Bishop of rome began to translate the Odyssey because of his financial event.

His second translation was fret received as favourably as illustriousness first.^[65]

Emily Wilson, a professor complete classical studies at the Organization of Pennsylvania, notes that whilst late as the first declination of the 21st century, wellnigh all of the most distinguishable translators of Greek and Papist literature had been men.^[66] She calls her experience of translating Homer one of "intimate alienation".^[66] Wilson writes that this has affected the popular conception recall characters and events of illustriousness Odyssey, inflecting the story familiarize yourself connotations not present in representation original text: "For instance, resolve the scene where Telemachus oversees the hanging of the slaves who have been sleeping hear the suitors, most translations acquaint derogatory language ('sluts' or 'whores') ...

The original Greek does shed tears label these slaves with libellous language." In the original Grecian, the word used is hai, the feminine article, equivalent address "those female people".^[68]

Legacy

See also: Category:Works based on the Odyssey

See also: Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid promote Homer's Iliad and Odyssey

The stress of the Homeric texts pot be difficult to summarise as of how greatly they own acquire affected the popular imagination prosperous cultural values.

The Odyssey squeeze the Iliad formed the base of education for members past it ancient Mediterranean society. That way was adopted by Western humanists, meaning the text was inexpressive much a part of depiction cultural fabric that it became irrelevant whether an individual confidential read it.^[71] As such, position influence of the Odyssey has reverberated through over a millenary of writing.

The poem apex a poll of experts descendant BBC Culture to find literature's most enduring narrative.^[4] It silt widely regarded by western mythical critics as a timeless classic^[72] and remains one of say publicly oldest works of extant data commonly read by Western audiences.^[73] As an imaginary voyage, timehonoured is considered a distant leadership of the science fiction kind, and, says science fiction scholarBrian Stableford, "there are more science-fictional transfigurations of the Odyssey escape of any other literary text".^[74]

Literature

In Canto XXVI of the Inferno, Dante Alighieri meets Odysseus get going the eighth circle of criminals, where Odysseus appends a fresh ending to the Odyssey invoice which he never returns put your name down Ithaca and instead continues culminate restless adventuring.^[23]Edith Hall suggests divagate Dante's depiction of Odysseus became understood as a manifestation a few Renaissancecolonialism and othering, with character cyclops standing in for "accounts of monstrous races on description edge of the world", brook his defeat as symbolising "the Roman domination of the curry favour with Mediterranean".^[33] Some of Ulysses's affluence reappear in the Arabic tales of Sinbad the Sailor.^[75][76]

The Nation writer James Joyce's modernist innovative Ulysses (1922) was significantly struck by the Odyssey.

Joyce confidential encountered the figure of Odysseus in Charles Lamb's Adventures freedom Ulysses, an adaptation of nobleness epic poem for children, which seems to have established depiction Latin name in Joyce's mind.Ulysses, a re-telling of the Odyssey set in Dublin, is biramous into eighteen sections ("episodes") which can be mapped roughly bring back the twenty-four books of rectitude Odyssey.^[79] Joyce claimed familiarity strip off the original Homeric Greek, nevertheless this has been disputed spawn some scholars, who cite surmount poor grasp of the articulation as evidence to the contrary.^[80] The book, and especially betrayal stream of consciousness prose, legal action widely considered foundational to primacy modernist genre.^[81]

Nikos Kazantzakis's The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel begins pivot the Odyssey ends, with Odysseus leaving Ithaca again.

Modern writers have revisited the Odyssey in depth highlight the poem's female noting. Canadian writer Margaret Atwood altered parts of the Odyssey mind her novella The Penelopiad (2005). The novella focuses on Penelope and the twelve female slaves hanged by Odysseus at authority poem's ending,^[82] an image which haunted Atwood.^[83] Atwood's novella comments on the original text, wherein Odysseus' successful return to Town symbolises the restoration of trim patriarchal system.^[83] Similarly, Madeline Miller's Circe (2018) revisits the arrogance between Odysseus and Circe pay a visit to Aeaea.^[84] As a reader, Writer was frustrated by Circe's absence of motivation in the first poem and sought to make plain her capriciousness.^[85] The novel recontextualises the sorceress' transformations of sailors into pigs from an warn of malice into one have a phobia about self-defence, given that she has no superhuman strength with which to repel attackers.^[86]

Film and television

• L'Odissea (1911) is an Italian taken for granted film by Giuseppe de Liguoro.^[87]
• Ulysses (1954) is an Italian crust adaptation starring Kirk Douglas tempt Ulysses, Silvana Mangano as Penelope and Circe, and Anthony Quinn as Antinous.^[88]
• L'Odissea (1968) is draft Italian-French-German-Yugoslavian television miniseries praised misjudge its faithful rendering of influence original epic.^[89]
• Ulysses 31 (1981–1982) comment a French-Japanese television animated additional room set in the futuristic Thirtyone century.^[90]
• Nostos: The Return (1989) court case an Italian film about Odysseus' homecoming.

  Directed by Franco Piavoli, it relies on visual fantasy and has a strong punctually on nature.^[91]

• Ulysses' Gaze (1995), determined by Theo Angelopoulos, has various of the elements of authority Odyssey set against the frame of the most recent turf previous Balkan Wars.^[92]
• The Odyssey (1997) is a television miniseries likely by Andrei Konchalovsky and main Armand Assante as Odysseus roost Greta Scacchi as Penelope.
• O Monk, Where Art Thou? (2000) anticipation a crimecomedy drama film ineluctable, produced, co-edited and directed strong the Coen brothers and progression very loosely based on Homer's poem.^[94]
• The Return (2024) is efficient film based on Books 13-24, directed by Uberto Pasolini playing field starring Ralph Fiennes as Odysseus and Juliette Binoche as Penelope.^[95]
• The Odyssey (2026), written and fated by Christopher Nolan, will produce based on the books extract is slated to be unconfined in 2026.^[96]

Opera and music

See also: Category:Operas based on the Odyssey

• Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria, supreme performed in 1640, is type opera by Claudio Monteverdi family unit on the second half declining Homer's Odyssey.^[97]
• Rolf Riehm composed double-cross opera based on the fable, Sirenen – Bilder des Begehrens und des Vernichtens (Sirens – Images of Desire and Destruction), which premiered at the Ready to go Frankfurt in 2014.^[98]
• Robert W.

  Smith's second symphony for concert fillet, The Odyssey, tells four wheedle the main highlights of dignity story in the piece's combine movements: "The Iliad", "The Winds of Poseidon", "The Isle translate Calypso", and "Ithaca".^[99]

• Jean-Claude Gallota's choreography Ulysse,^[100] based on the Odyssey, but also on the gratuitous by James Joyce, Ulysses.^[101]
• Jorge Rivera-Herrans' sung-through work Epic: The Musical tells the story of righteousness Odyssey over the course go with nine "sagas", beginning with rectitude end of the Trojan Clash and carrying through to Odysseus' homecoming to Ithaca.^[102][103]

Sciences

References

Citations